Chapter 5 Kingdoms, Kings And An Early Republic

Taxes

The rulers of the mahajanapadas required increased resources to build forts and maintain large armies. Therefore, unlike the earlier janapada rajas who depended on occasional gifts, the mahajanapada rulers began collecting regular taxes.

Various forms of taxes were imposed:

• Taxes on Crops: This was the most important tax, as most people were farmers. Typically, the tax was fixed at 1/6th of the produce. This was known as bhaga or a share.
• Taxes on Craftspersons: Could be in the form of labor. Craftspersons like weavers or smiths might have had to work for the king for one day each month.
• Taxes on Herders: Expected to be paid in the form of animals or animal produce.
• Taxes on Goods: Collected on goods bought and sold through trade.
• Taxes on Hunters and Gatherers: Required to provide forest produce to the raja.

Forest produce provided by hunters and gatherers might have included items like meat, hides, honey, fruits, berries, medicinal plants, and timber.

Changes In Agriculture

Around the period of the mahajanapadas, two major changes took place in agriculture, leading to increased production:

1. Increased Use of Iron Ploughshares: Iron ploughshares came into wider use. Unlike wooden ploughshares, iron ones could turn over heavy, clayey soil more effectively, leading to better cultivation and increased grain production.
2. Transplantation of Paddy: People began practicing the method of transplanting paddy. Instead of scattering rice seeds directly into the field, saplings were first grown in a nursery and then planted in the fields. This technique significantly increased production as more plants survived and grew successfully. However, it was very labor-intensive work. This difficult task was often performed by slave men and women (dasas and dasis) and landless agricultural laborers (kammakaras).

These agricultural innovations, requiring significant labor and potentially increasing surplus production, would have been encouraged by kings as they would lead to greater wealth and resources (through taxes) to support their growing armies and building projects.

A Closer Look — (A) Magadha

Magadha (find on Map 4, page 49) emerged as the most important mahajanapada over a period of about two hundred years, benefiting from its advantageous geographical location and resources:

• Rivers: Rivers like the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha, providing crucial advantages for:
  • Transport.
  • Water supply for drinking and agriculture.
  • Making the land fertile through alluvial deposits.
• Forests: Parts of Magadha were forested, providing elephants that could be captured and trained for the army. Forests also supplied wood for building houses, carts, and chariots.
• Minerals: The region had iron ore mines that could be exploited to make strong tools and weapons, giving Magadha a military advantage.

Magadha was ruled by powerful rulers, including Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used various strategies to conquer other janapadas. Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler who expanded control up to the northwest of the subcontinent.

Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) was the capital of Magadha for several years before it was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna).

Around 2300 years ago, Alexander, a ruler from Macedonia in Europe, aimed to conquer the world. He conquered parts of Egypt and West Asia and reached the Indian subcontinent up to the banks of the Beas river. However, his soldiers refused to march further eastwards, reportedly fearing the vast armies of Indian rulers, which included large numbers of foot soldiers, chariots, and elephants. These armies were likely significantly larger and more organized than the assemblies and warriors described in the Rigveda, highlighting the military growth in the mahajanapada period.

A Closer Look — (B) Vajji

While Magadha developed into a powerful kingdom under monarchical rule, other forms of governance existed. Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was governed by a system known as gana or sangha.

In a gana or a sangha, authority was not held by a single ruler but by many rulers. Even when thousands of men collectively ruled, each individual ruler was known as a 'raja'. These rajas performed rituals together and met in assemblies to discuss and decide important matters through debate. For example, they would collectively discuss strategies if attacked by an enemy.

However, participation in these assemblies was limited. Women, dasas (slaves), and kammakaras (landless agricultural laborers) could not participate.

Prominent figures like the Buddha and Mahavira (founders of Buddhism and Jainism respectively) belonged to ganas or sanghas. Buddhist texts, such as the Digha Nikaya (a famous Buddhist book containing speeches of the Buddha), provide vivid descriptions of life in the sanghas, including their governance structure and principles.

Gana: Used for a group that has many members.

Sangha: Means organisation or association.

The Vajjis were known for their collective decision-making process. Ajatasattu, the king of Magadha, sought the Buddha's advice before attacking the Vajjis. The Buddha outlined several conditions that contributed to the Vajjis' prosperity, emphasizing their practice of holding frequent, full public assemblies, acting together, following established rules, respecting elders, not holding women by force, maintaining local shrines (chaityas), and respecting wise individuals and those of different beliefs, allowing them freedom of movement. These practices highlight the democratic principles and collective governance aspects that distinguished the Vajji sangha from the centralized monarchical rule of other mahajanapadas like Magadha.

Powerful kingdoms attempted to conquer the sanghas. Nevertheless, some ganas or sanghas lasted for a very long time, until about 1500 years ago, when they were finally conquered by the Gupta rulers.